Mixed species tangle of lianas in tropical Australia.
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Lianas in Udawattakele, Sri Lanka
A canopy of Entada gigas that has formed over a monkey ladder vine (Bauhinia glabra) on Kauai, Hawaii.
Liana tangle across a forest in the Western Ghats
A liana is a long-stemmed, woodyvine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy to get access to well-lit areas of the forest.[1] Lianas are characteristic of tropical moist deciduous forests (especially seasonal forests), but may be found in temperate rainforests. There are also temperate lianas, for example the members of the Clematis or Vitis (wild grape) genera. Lianas can form bridges amidst the forest canopy, providing arboreal animals with paths across the forest. These bridges can protect weaker trees from strong winds. Lianas compete with forest trees for sunlight, water and nutrients from the soil.[2] Forests without lianas grow 150% more fruit; trees with lianas have twice the probability of dying.[3]
The word liana does not refer to a taxonomic grouping, but rather a habit of plant growth – much like tree or shrub. It comes from standard French liane, itself from an Antilles French dialect word meaning to sheave.
Lianas may be found in many different plant families. One way of distinguishing lianas from trees and shrubs is based on the stiffness, specifically, the Young's modulus of various parts of the stem. Trees and shrubs have young twigs and smaller branches which are quite flexible and older growth such as trunks and large branches which are stiffer. A liana often has stiff young growths and older, more flexible growth at the base of the stem.[4]
Ecology[edit]
Lianas compete intensely with trees, greatly reducing tree growth[5] and tree reproduction,[6] greatly increasing tree mortality,[7] preventing tree seedlings from establishing,[5] altering the course of regeneration in forests,[8] and ultimately affecting tree population growth rates.[9] Lianas also provide access routes in the forest canopy for many arboreal animals, including ants and many other invertebrates, lizards, rodents, sloths, monkeys, and lemurs. For example, in the Eastern tropical forests of Madagascar, many lemurs achieve higher mobility from the web of lianas draped amongst the vertical tree species. Many lemurs prefer trees with lianas for their roost sites.[10] Lianas also provide support for trees when strong winds blow.[11] However, they may be destructive in that when one tree falls, the connections made by the lianas may cause many other trees to fall.[11]
As noted by Charles Darwin, because lianas are supported by other plants, they may conserve resources that other plants must allocate to the development of structure and use them instead for growth and reproduction. In general, lianas are detrimental to the trees that support them. Growth rates are lower for trees with lianas; they directly damage hosts by mechanical abrasion and strangulation, render hosts more susceptible to ice and wind damage, and increase the probability that the host tree falls. Lianas also make the canopy of trees more accessible to animals which eat leaves. Because of these negative effects, trees which remain free of lianas are at an advantage; some species have evolved characteristics which help them avoid or shed lianas.[12]
Examples[edit]
Some families and genera containing liana species include:
Gnetophyta
Acanthaceae
Thunbergia, such as T. grandiflora and T. mysorensis
Ancistrocladaceae
Annonaceae
Apocynaceae
Strophanthus, e.g S. sarmentosus
Arecaceae
Araceae
Pothos, e.g. P. lancifolius
Aristolochiaceae
Bignoniaceae
Capparaceae
Connaraceae
Dilleniaceae
Doliocarpus[2]
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea, e.g. D. sylvatica
Fabaceae
some Acacia, e.g. A. concinna
Mucuna, e.g. M. bennettii
Strongylodon, e.g. S. macrobotrys
Flagellariaceae
Loganiaceae
Strychnos, e.g. S. axillaris
Nepenthaceae
Oleaceae
Polygalaceae
Moutabea, e.g. M. aculeata
Sapindaceae
Rhamnaceae
Rubiaceae
Rutaceae
Schlegeliaceae
Smilacaceae
Vitaceae
Cissus, e.g. C. hypoglauca
References[edit]
^'liana'. Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ abSchnitzer, S. A.; Bongers, F. (2002). 'The ecology of lianas and their role in forests'. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 17 (5): 223–230. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02491-6.
^Landers, Jackson (13 June 2017). 'Tarzan's Favorite Mode of Travel, the Liana Vine, Chokes Off a Tree's Ability to Bear Fruit'. Smithsonian. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
^Lahaye, R.; Civeyrel, L.; Speck, T.; Rowe, N. P. (2005). 'Evolution of shrub-like growth forms in the lianoid subfamily Secamonoideae (Apocynaceae s.l.) of Madagascar: phylogeny, biomechanics, and development'. American Journal of Botany. 92 (8): 1381–96. doi:10.3732/ajb.92.8.1381. PMID21646158.
^ abSchnitzer, S. A.; Carson (2010). 'Lianas suppress tree regeneration and diversity in treefall gaps'. Ecology Letters. 13 (7): 849–857. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01480.x. PMID20482581.
^Wright, S. J.; Jaramillo, A. M.; Pavon, J.; Condit, R.; Hubbell, S. P.; Foster, R. B. (2005). 'Reproductive size thresholds in tropical trees: variation among individuals, species and forests'. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 21 (3): 307–315. doi:10.1017/S0266467405002294.
^Ingwell, L. L.; Wright, S. J.; Becklund, K. K.; Hubbell, S. P.; Schnitzer, S. A. (2010). 'The impact of lianas on 10 years of tree growth and mortality on Barro Colorado Island, Panama'. Journal of Ecology. 98 (4): 879–887. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01676.x.
^Schnitzer, S. A.; Dalling, J. W.; Carson, W. P. (2000). 'The impact of lianas on tree regeneration in tropical forest canopy gaps: Evidence for an alternative pathway of gap-phase regeneration'. Journal of Ecology. 88 (4): 655–666. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00489.x.
^Visser, Marco D.; Schnitzer, Stefan A.; Muller-Landau, Helene C.; Jongejans, Eelke; de Kroon, Hans; Comita, Liza S.; Hubbell, Stephen P.; Wright, S. Joseph; Zuidema, Pieter (2018). 'Tree species vary widely in their tolerance for liana infestation: A case study of differential host response to generalist parasites'. Journal of Ecology. 106 (2): 781–794. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12815. ISSN0022-0477.
^Rendigs, A.; Radespiel, U.; Wrogemann, D.; Zimmermann, E. (2003). 'Relationship between microhabitat structure and distribution of mouse lemurs (Microcebus spp.) in northwestern Madagascar'. International Journal of Primatology. 24 (1): 47–64. doi:10.1023/A:1021494428294.
^ abGarrido-Pérez, E. I.; Dupuy, J. M.; Durán-García, R.; Gerold, G.; Schnitzer, S. A.; Ucan-May, M. (2008). 'Structural effects of lianas and hurricane Wilma on trees in Yucatan peninsula, Mexico'. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 24 (5): 559–562. doi:10.1017/S0266467408005221.
^Putz, F. E. (1984). 'How trees avoid and shed lianas'. Biotropica. 16 (1): 19–23. doi:10.2307/2387889. JSTOR2387889.
External links[edit]
'Vines and Lianas' by Rhett Butler, at http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0406.htm
'Lianas' . The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liana&oldid=950340861'
A bottle of 'O.P. Anderson', a Swedish AkvavitAkvavit or aquavit (; also akevitt in ) is a distilled that is principally produced in, where it has been produced since the 15th century. Akvavit is distilled from grain and potatoes, and is flavoured with a variety of herbs. Akvavit is also popular in Germany.Akvavit gets its distinctive flavour from and, and the dominant flavour must (according to the ) come from a distillate of and/or seed. It typically contains 40% or 80 (U.S.) The EU has established a minimum of 37.5% ABV for akvavit to be named as such.
Contents.Etymology The word aquavit derives from the, 'water of life.' Compare the word, from uisce beatha, which has the same meaning. Likewise, clear is called ' ( for 'water of life'). A story holding that the term really means 'water from the vine' – from a conflation of the Latin vītae (genitive of vita) and the Italian term vite (meaning grapevine) – is no more than a picturesque piece of.
Drinking culture Akvavit is an important part of, where it is often drunk during festive gatherings, such as Christmas dinners and weddings, and as an. In Iceland, Sweden, Denmark and Germany aquavit is cooled and often sipped slowly from a small. This is usually attributed to tradition. It is not generally cooled in Norway, but similarly enjoyed slowly. In Sweden commonly the aquavit is consumed immediately following a song, called a. The most well-known song is.
In Finland and Sweden, aquavit consumed from a shot glass is commonly associated with, which are traditionally held during late August. In Denmark aquavit is called snaps or akvavit, and is primarily consumed in December during Christmas lunches or around Easter during Easter lunches.
It is consumed year round though, mainly for lunches of traditional Danish dishes where beer is also always on the table. Drinking it without food or at a bar will be considered a little strange. In Norway, where most aquavit is matured in oak casks, the drink is served at room temperature in tulip-shaped glasses. Aquavit arguably complements dark beer well, and its consumption is very often preceded by a swig of beer. Production Akvavit is distilled from either. After distillation, it is flavoured with herbs, spices, or fruit oil. Commonly seen flavours are, and lemon or orange peel.
Dill and are also used. The Danish distillery makes an akvavit distilled with.The recipes and flavours differ between brands, but is typically the dominant flavour. Akvavit usually has a yellowish hue, but this can vary from clear to light brown, depending on how long it has been aged in oak casks (Norway) or the amount of colorant used. Normally, a darker colour suggests a higher age or the use of young casks, though artificial is permitted.
Clear akvavit is called taffel, meaning table aquavit. Taffel aquavit is typically aged in old casks that do not colour the finished or it is not aged at all.Origin and traditional variants “Dear lord, will your grace know that I send your grace some water with messenger Jon Teiste which is called Aqua vite and the same water helps for all his illness that a man can have internally.”— Lord of Bergenshus castle, Eske BilleThe earliest known reference to 'aquavit' is found in a 1531 letter from the Danish Lord of castle, Eske Bille to, the last Roman Catholic of Norway. The letter, dated April 13, accompanying a package, offers the archbishop 'some water which is called Aqua Vite and is a help for all sort of illness which a man can have both internally and externally'.While this claim for the medicinal properties of the drink may be rather inflated, aquavit is popularly believed to ease the digestion of rich foods. In Denmark, it is traditionally associated with. In Norway, it is drunk at celebrations, particularly, Easter or May 17.
In Sweden, it is a staple of the traditional midsummer celebrations dinner, usually drunk while singing one of many drinking songs. It is usually drunk as during meals, especially during the course – along with pickled, or fish. In this regard, it is popularly quipped that aquavit helps the fish swim down to the stomach. Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichine’s New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 1987), pp. Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 on the definition, description, presentation, labelling and the protection of geographical indications of spirit drinks and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 1576/89, Appendix II No. 24, Retrieved 2014-02-09. Nickles, Jane (2015). Certified Specialist of Spirits Study Guide.
Society of Wine Educators. Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Www.nordstjernan.com. Philbrick, Hope S.
Retrieved 8 August 2008. ^. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
A transcription of the original letter can be found here:'. Kiere herre werdis ether nade wiide att ieg szende ether nade nogit watn mett Jonn Teiste som kallis Aqua vite och hielper szamme watn for alle hande kranchdom som ith menniske kandt haffue indwortis.' ('. Dear lord, will your grace know that I send your grace some water with Jon Teiste which is called Aqua vite and helps the same water for all his illness that a man can have internally and externally. Okanagan Spirits. Long Table Distillery. Sheringham Distillery.External links.